Creatine is often taken by people looking to build muscle. Now scientists are investigating the effects this chemical has on our cognition and mood.
If you’ve heard of creatine, it’s likely because it’s one of the most well-researched supplements. It has long been associated with improved endurance and performance during exercise, and is commonly taken in the form of creatine monohydrate by bodybuilders. But the compound isn’t just potentially useful to those looking to expand their muscles.
Creatine is a vital chemical ingredient in our bodies, where it is produced naturally within the liver, kidneys and pancreas and stored in our muscles and brains. The creatine we produce typically isn’t enough for our total requirements on its own, so most people also rely on sources in their diet – certain foods, such as meat and oily fish, are rich in this nutrient.
Creatine helps to manage the energy available to our cells and tissues, and there’s emerging evidence that some people might benefit from creatine supplementation.
From reducing post-viral fatigue to improving cognitive function in people who are stressed, and even boosting memory, creatine supplements may provide some people with a significant cognitive boost. It’s also been speculated that creatine might help to alleviate symptoms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and improve mood. So, are you getting enough creatine? And when is it a good idea to take a supplement?
The birth of creatine research
The benefits of creatine supplementation were first discovered in the 1970s by the late Roger Harris, a professor from Aberystwyth University in Wales. Creatine has since become well established in the sporting world, with a wealth of research behind it linking it to improvements in our physical function.
But over the last two decades, studies have been starting to reveal other potential health benefits of creatine supplements. One of the biggest areas of research is cognitive function, given that creatine plays a role in neogenesis – the formation of new neurons in the brain.
When Ali Gordjinejad started to notice studies linking creatine supplementation to working and short-term memory in sleep-deprived people, he saw that they were suggesting that a person had to take creatine for weeks or months to see any benefits.
“It was assumed that the body’s uptake of creatine cells is marginal, therefore it wouldn’t work for only one night of sleep deprivation – until we did our study,” says Gordjinejad, a research scientist at the Forschungszentrum Jülich research centre, in Germany.
Gordjinejad decided to test the effects of one dose of creatine on cognitive performance following only one night of sleep deprivation. He recruited 15 people, and gave them either a creatine supplement or a placebo at 6pm. He tested their cognitive performance – including reaction times and short-term memories – every two-and-a-half hours until 9am.
Gordjinejad found that processing speed was much faster in the creatine group compared with the placebo group. Gordjinejad doesn’t know exactly why, but he suspects it’s because the sleep deprivation and cognitive tasks put participants’ neurons under stress, and this triggers the body to take in more creatine.
“If the energy demand is high from cells, then phosphocreatine (which provides energy for short bursts of effort) comes in and acts like an energy reservoir,” says Gordjinejad, who explains that dietary creatine can help this reserve to fill up again.
If cells need a lot of energy for a short period of time, phosphocreatine can come in and act as an energy reserve, Gordjinejad explains.
Though Gordjinejad’s study was small, he believes his findings show that creatine could potentially help to overcome the negative effects of sleep deprivation – but only in the short-term, until you sleep.
However, the participants in Gordjinejad’s study took 10 times the recommended daily dose of creatine – they had 35g, which is around half a glass full of the powdered supplement. (Do not try this at home.) This dose, Gordjinejad says, would pose a risk to people with kidney problems, and in the general population it could cause stomach pains.
Gordjinejad plans to conduct a similar trial where he gives participants a smaller dose. He hopes that, in the future, creatine could be used in this way by people who have an unexpected prolonged period of being awake, such as emergency service workers, or students doing their exams.
However, Terry McMorris, professor emeritus at the University of Chichester, carried out a review of 15 studies in 2024, and found that research so far fails to support the theory that creatine supplements can improve cognitive function.
However, McMorris says this may be because studies he looked at used various different creatine supplement regimens. Also, he explains that many studies relied on outdated cognition tests. “Some date back 1930s – they’re too easy, we don’t push people enough,” he says.
But while McMorris says there’s not enough evidence to draw any conclusions, he believes it’s an area worth more research.
Cognitive performance aside
Studies are showing a range of other potential health benefits of creatine, including stopping the progress of tumours in some animal studies, and improving menopause symptoms. One reason for this may be that creatine could have a protective antioxidant effect that can help our bodies to weather the effects of stressors.
One recent study involving 25,000 people found that, among participants aged 52 and above, for those who had the highest levels of creatine in their diets, each additional 0.09g of creatine over a two-day average was linked to a 14% reduction in cancer risk.
Creatine may also have benefits to our mental health. In one study, people with depression were given creatine powder alongside a course of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). The researchers found that, over eight weeks, their symptoms improved more than those who had CBT without creatine.
“One reason creatine might help people with depression is that it’s used to a significant degree for energy production and usage in the brain,” says Douglas Kalman, clinical associate professor at Nova Southeastern University, Florida. If creatine levels are low, this affects energy production in the brain, but also the levels of neurotransmitters – chemical signals that allow nerve cells to communicate with each other – he says. This, in turn, can affect a person’s mood.
This finding may be especially important for vegans, says Sergej Ostojic, professor of nutrition at the University of Agder in Norway. According to some research, this group is at higher risk of depression. Creatine might be at play here, he adds, as vegans have been found to have less creatine in their muscles than those with omnivorous diets.
